Well-prepared science teachers are in demand. Teaching positions usually offer good benefits and job security, although working conditions are often far from ideal.  The job usually allows one to develop an individual approach, exploring one’s own interests and initiative; many teachers derive considerable satisfaction from the success of their students.  Information about teaching science at all levels is available from the National Science Teachers Association, 1840 Wilson Blvd., Arlington, VA 22201-3000 (phone 703-243-7100; http://www.nsta.org).

Primary School Teaching

It is unusual to combine a major in the sciences with preparation to teach at the elementary level, but it can be done and would allow one to make a unique contribution.  Again, early planning is essential; interested students should contact the Department of Education.  Students wishing to test their interest level should take one of the Foundations of Education courses (Ed 301C, Am. School) or Ed 313B, Childhood and Society, during their sophomore year.

Teaching in Community and Junior Colleges

Community colleges and junior colleges are two-year institutions whose students enter from high school.  The work a student does may be the final formal instruction or it may serve to allow entrance to a four-year college or university.  The number of community colleges and the students enrolled has increased enormously in the last several decades.

To teach in a community college, one must meet two criteria: knowledge of the specific field and ability to teach.  Sometimes specific course requirements in education must be met.  Preparation in the specific field requires a Master’s degree in Biology or a specific discipline within biology. Increasingly, a Ph.D. is required and in many regions it is an absolute requirement.  Someone interested in becoming a member of a community college faculty should acquire as much teaching experience as possible and still gain mastery in the subject matter.  Often a faculty member in a community college will need to teach a rather wide variety of courses, and thus must have an understanding of many areas, sometimes even in related sciences.  A few doctoral programs are available in science education and are designed for those whose primary objective is education, not research.  Many graduates of these programs join community college faculties and schools of education.  Anyone who prefers to teach in a particular region of the country should contact institutions in that region for specific information.

Master of Arts in Teaching (MAT) programs mix courses in education with courses in the discipline in which the student wants to teach and in which undergraduate work has been done (see page 14).  Although these programs are generally more suitable for high-school teaching than community-college teaching, some MAT graduates find employment in community colleges.

Faculty salaries at community colleges vary considerably; many are comparable with those in four-year colleges.  Teaching loads are heavy by comparison with those in universities, but faculty research usually is not emphasized.  Rewards in personal satisfaction can be high; many community college students are very intelligent and highly motivated, and an instructor may have enormous impact on individual students and on the community.

Informal Science Education (museums, etc.)

Most science museums and zoos maintain active education departments that present a variety of programs to the public, usually with a focus on primary-school children.  Staff members that present these programs typically have an undergraduate degree in science, often biology.  Course work or summer employment in education would also be appropriate preparation.  These positions are not well paid and typically bring no job security (there is no tenure), so there is often significant turnover in the staff of these education departments.  While not a financially inviting career, such positions can be fun.  Summer positions may be available, but inquire early.

Opportunities in Health

Medicine

Many students enter WU with an interest in going to medical school after the BA degree.  A biology major provides excellent preparation for medical school; a biology major that includes at least 2 semesters of independent research (Biology 500) provides outstanding preparation for biological and/or biomedical research in graduate and/or medical school.

All students who plan to major in biology who have an interest in premedicine should enroll in Chemistry 111A in the fall of freshman year.  Severe difficulty in academic planning will result from omitting Chemistry 111A in the fall of freshman year since Chemistry 111A is the prerequisite for Biology 2960, the introductory course for biology majors and/or premedical students.

Biology 2960, 2970 and 3050 (Fundamentals/Principles of Biology I, II and III) are the introductory courses required of both biology majors and premedical students.  Biology 2960 is normally taken in the spring of freshman year.  Chemistry 111A is a prerequisite and Chemistry 112A is a corequisite of Biology 2960.  Biology 2970 is normally taken in the fall of sophomore year.  Both Biology 2960 and Chemistry 112A are prerequisites for Biology 2970.  Biology 3050 is normally taken in the spring of the sophomore year; Biology 2970 is a prerequisite of Biology 3050.  These courses in Principles of Biology are designed to be taken consecutively and together provide a strong foundation for further study in the life sciences.

Mathematics 131-132 is required for all biology majors and satisfies medical-school requirements for one year of college calculus.  Mathematics 233 and 320 are useful for students with interests in basic research.  Physics 117A-118A (or 197-198) is generally taken in the junior year by biology majors or pre-med students majoring in an area outside the sciences.  Premedical students considering either a chemistry, a physics, and/or an engineering major should follow the recommendations of the appropriate department concerning the timing of Physics 117A-118A.

MCATs (Medical College Admission Tests) are usually taken in April of the junior year.  MCATs are also offered in August just prior to the senior year; scores from the August MCATs arrive at medical schools after some admissions decisions have been completed, however.  All of the above required courses:  (1) should be completed for the MCATs; (2) are needed if the student will attend medical school; and (3) are needed by all biology majors.  Biology 181, a 1-unit credit/no credit course is highly recommended (but not required) for students with interests in biological and/or biomedical research.  The freshman seminar Bio 112 is a good choice for those with interests in biology and/or medicine who want an additional biology course in the fall of freshman year.

There are 9-11 distribution courses outside of the natural and physical sciences that are required for the B.A. in the College. It is useful for the student to take 4-5 of these courses by the end of the second year to allow flexibility in course planning and scheduling in the junior and senior years, especially if the student chooses to take Independent Research. A research experience can be critical if the student wishes to be competitive for admission to (1) Ph.D., (2) M.D., or (3) joint M.D./Ph.D. programs at research-oriented schools. The joint M.D./Ph.D. program is quite attractive for students with an interest in academic medicine and basic research; some of these programs cover the costs of tuition and pay a yearly stipend for all years spent in medical and graduate training. See http://www.nigms.nih.gov/Training/InstPredoc/PredocInst-MSTP.htm for a list of medical schools with M.D./Ph.D. programs. An excellent time to take independent research (Biology 500) is in the junior and senior years. Large open blocks of time in those years are very important since much of the independent research requires long hours not interrupted by classes; in addition, many students conduct their research at our Medical School and transportation time between the Medical School and the Main Campus is a factor in schedule planning during these semesters. Completing half of the distribution requirements outside of the sciences by the end of the second year can be very helpful to students who enroll in independent research. In addition, many medical schools require a course in English Composition such as EComp 100 as well as an additional course in English, English Literature, or English Composition; see the requirements of specific medical schools for details.

All students with interests in medicine should demonstrate their abilities to assist others by serving as a volunteer.  Important volunteer experiences can be obtained in a variety of ways, e.g., at a hospital, at a nursing home, in a camp or school for individuals in need of help, serving as a tutor, etc.  The Campus Y is an excellent resource to assist students in placement for volunteer experiences.  Vicki May, Outreach Coordinator, (x5-6846; may@biology.wustl.edu) is also an excellent person to contact about placement.  Students who would like academic credit for a volunteer "Experience in the Life Sciences" should consider enrollment in Biology 365.

For further information about medical schools and the medical school application process, contact Dean Carolyn Herman (x5-6897) in the College of Arts and Sciences Office.  For questions about these guidelines in medicine, contact Professor Paul Stein (x5-6824; stein@biology.wustl.edu) in the Biology Department.  For further information on medical schools see The American Medical College Application Service at http://www.aamc.org/start.htm and the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) at https://www.aamc.org/students/applying/mcat.

The field of Dentistry covers a broad spectrum of  opportunities.  The General Dentist or Family Dentist is an individual involved in the routine maintenance and clinical diagnosis of the oral cavity.  This individual is trained in minor surgical procedures, oral prosthetic work, and some cosmetic Dentistry.  The General Dentist is usually associated with a number of specialists. Typically, an individual spends four years in Dental School (undergraduate dental degree) and one or two years in a family-practice residency program before joining a dental group or starting a practice.  There are also opportunities in the military and in such cases the US government will subsidize the cost of dental education.  Other areas of dentistry generally require advanced training in postgraduate Master's or specialty programs.  Such areas include orthodontics, periodontics, prosthedontics, pediatric dentistry, oral maxillofacial surgery, oral pathology, and forensic dentistry.  There is also opportunity for dental research careers with a combined DDS-Ph.D. training program.  Typically, such individuals are employed as faculty of Dental Schools or by pharmaceutical companies.

For information on these advanced programs it is recommended that individuals contact the Greater St. Louis Dental Society (13667 Manchester Road, St. Louis, MO, PH: 965-5960) or the American Dental Association (ADA), (211 E. Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611-2678, PH: 1-800-621-8099). 

Suggested courses for a student who is considering a career in dentistry would include Biology 3110, 3151, 334, 3411, 349 and 4580.  Art 107-108 would be helpful since excellent eye-hand coordination is required for the profession.  Many dental schools request that students applying to dental school take the standardized dental aptitude test before consideration for admission.  Finding summer work in a dental office is recommended to get first-hand experience of the profession.

The first year of Dental School is similar or identical to Medical School in the basic science courses required.  These usually include:  Human Gross Anatomy, Physiology, Histology, Cell Biology, Biochemistry, and Immunology/Microbiology.  There are also preclinical courses to prepare students to interact with patients and staff and, in general, learn the basic operation of the Dental Clinics.  The sophomore year includes courses such as oral pathology, radiology, and other preclinical courses to understand the clinical problems confronting dental clinicians.  Usually it is not until the second semester of the sophomore year and that summer when students begin to experience interactions with patients.  This period can best be described as a team apprentice-approach at most US Dental Schools.  In the sophomore year, the student is required to take and pass Part I of a National Dental Board Exam.  In the junior and senior years the student continues to take a variety of courses to understand and to treat oral diseases.  A majority of time is involved in fulfilling certain clinical objectives.  If all requirements are fulfilled, the individual must take Part II of a Dental National Board exam in order to receive his or her dental degree.  Some states require additional testing.  See http://www.gradschools.com/listings/menus/dental_menu.html for further information.

A genetic counselor helps individuals or families afflicted with genetic disease.  As genetic knowledge has increased, the definition of genetic disease has been broadened from the classic Mendelian diseases and chromosomal abnormalities to include common diseases (such as coronary artery disease, hypertension, Alzheimer’s disease, etc.) that have a strong genetic component.  The duties of a genetic counselor vary, but can include helping to diagnose the disease, counseling individuals about the nature of the disease and its genetic basis, informing individuals and their relatives about the risk of carrying the disease or being affected by it, requesting and/or performing genetic tests either to assess risk or to evaluate the genetic state of the individual, and working with patients and physicians in choosing treatment options.

There are two principal career paths for entering the field of genetic counseling.  The first is to obtain an M.D.  Medical doctors with an interest in genetic counseling have traditionally specialized in pediatrics because the bulk of classic Mendelian diseases and chromosomal abnormalities first become apparent in infants (about a third of all pediatric inpatients in U.S. hospitals are afflicted with a genetic or chromosomal disease).  However, this situation is beginning to change as genetics is increasingly being used to assess risk and effective treatment of diseases affecting older individuals.  Those individuals choosing the medical path to genetic counseling are usually involved primarily in diagnosis and treatment of the diseases.  The other path to genetic counseling is to pursue graduate work in human genetics, either at the Master’s or doctoral levels.  There are now several Master’s degree programs in genetic counseling that lead to accreditation as a genetic counselor by the American Board of Medical Genetics.  Individuals pursuing this path often emphasize risk assessment and prediction, family counseling, and the performance of genetic testing.

For either career path, biology majors interested in genetic counseling should take additional courses in genetics, such as Biol 3371 (Eukaryotic Genomes), Biol 4181 (Population Genetics and Microevolution), Bio 4183 (Molecular Evolution), Biol 4342/434W (Research Explorations in Genomics) and Biol 437 (Laboratory on DNA Manipulation).  Because genetic counseling involves risk prediction and the manipulation of probabilities, students also should take Math 2200 or 3200 (Elementary Probability and Statistics).  For those students wishing to work with the common diseases that affect older individuals and have a strong genetic component, additional courses in mathematics and statistics are strongly recommended, such as Math 439 (Linear Statistical Models), Math 493 (Probability), and Math 494 (Mathematical Statistics).

Additional information can be obtained from the National Society of Genetic Counselors, Executive Office, 233 Canterbury Drive, Wallingford, PA 19086 (phone: 215/872-7608) or the American Board of Genetic Counseling http://www.faseb.org/genetics/abgc/abgcmenu.htm

Health Administration

Students who are considering a career in health care, but who think that they might be more interested in management and administration rather than in patient care, should consider a career in health administration.  Because of changes in our health-care system, there are now many diverse career options for those trained in health administration.  For example, health-care executives typically have management positions in hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, ambulatory care facilities, health maintenance organizations (HMOs), health-related associations, consulting firms, public health organizations and other government agencies.  By working in these positions, health-care administrators have the opportunity to make significant contributions to improving health care in the communities served by these institutions and organizations.

Qualifications for an entry-level position in health administration include a Master's degree, usually in health-care management from an accredited school, and an internship, fellowship or previous work experience in a health-care organization or other business setting.  There are many accredited colleges and universities in the USA and Canada (including Washington University) that offer suitable graduate programs.  In general, earning a Master's degree from these graduate programs takes two years.  The programs include course work in health-care policy and law, marketing, health-care financing, human resources and other topics relevant to health-care management.  Many programs include supervised internships, residencies or fellowships in a clinic, hospital or health-care agency.

As an example of the requirements for admission into a Master's degree program in health administration, the requirements for admission to Washington University Medical School's Master in Health Administration Program are a bachelor's degree and completion of the Graduate Record Exam (GRE) or the Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT).  No specific undergraduate major field of study is required for admission to the program.  However, an introductory course in accounting is required.  Previous experience working in health care is recommended.  A double major in biology and economics would provide strong preparation.

The Natural Sciences Learning Center has a pamphlet containing additional information on careers in Health Administration and a list of accredited graduate programs.  For further information contact Marilyn Hummert, Administrative Coordinator at the Washington University Health Administration Program (362-3274) or the American College of Healthcare Executives, One North Franklin St.; Suite 1700; Chicago, IL 60606-3491 (phone: 312-424-2800; http://www.ACHE.org).

Occupational therapists are dedicated to helping people to develop skills and to adapt to disabilities so that their lives become more productive and meaningful.  As an applied social and biological science, occupational therapy benefits persons of all ages whose ability to engage in life's tasks is impaired by physical or mental disease, injury, birth defect or aging.  Occupational therapists help individuals develop, regain or retain the skills they need to learn, to play, to earn a living and to tend to their personal needs.

At the present time this is a highly marketable career with salaries (for Master's degree) ranging from $32,000 (starting) to $80,000 per year.  Students interested in a Master's degree program in occupational therapy need specific prerequisite courses; most of these courses are part of the Washington University B.A. in Biology (an upper-level course in biology such as Bio 3110; Chem 111A-112A and Chem 151-152, Physics 117A; and English Composition).  However, several concern specific areas in biology, psychology, and sociology/anthropology.  Courses most often required include a course in human physiology (such as Bio 328, Principles in Human Physiology); a course in abnormal psychology (such as Psych 354); a course in developmental psychology (such as Psych 321); a course in sociology/anthropology (such as Anth 301B, Individual, Family, and Community); a course in political science or economics (such as Econ 103B, Microeconomics or Econ 352, Health Economics); a course in statistics (such as Psych 300 or Math 1011 or 320); and a course in ethics or logic (such as Phil 100G, Introduction to Logic and Critical Analysis, or Phil 233F, Biomedical Ethics).  Competence in medical terminology is often required and can be gained through Classics 325D or through guided study.  However, entrance requirements vary among schools; one should consult the catalogues or application brochures for the schools of interest.

Typically, a professional Master's Degree in occupational therapy takes approximately 2.5 complete years.  This time includes a 6-month internship (non-paid) which is arranged by the degree-awarding institution.  A final certification exam is required.

Courses in a Master's degree program typically include "Functional Assessment," "Applied Anatomy," "Therapeutic Intervention," and "Administration" as examples.  A complete description of course work and prerequisites for the Washington University Program in Occupational Therapy, and a description of occupational therapy careers are present in the Natural Sciences Learning Center.  Also, the Occupational Therapy Program at Washington University can be reached at 314-286-1600.  Career advisors are willing to discuss occupational therapy as a career with anyone interested.  Further information is available at http://www.otjoblink.org/links/link05.asp

The mission of public health is to "fulfill society's interest in assuring conditions in which people can be healthy" (Institute of Medicine, Committee for the Study of the Future of Public Health, Division of Health Care Services. 1988. The Future of Public Health. National Academy Press, Washington, DC).  Public health serves this mission through organized interdisciplinary efforts that address the physical, mental and environmental health concerns of communities and populations at risk for disease and injury.  Health promotion and disease prevention technologies encompass a broad array of functions and expertise, including three core public health functions: (1) assessing and monitoring the health of communities and populations at risk to identify health problems and priorities; (2) formulating public policies, in collaboration with community and government leaders, designed to solve identified local and national health problems and priorities; (3) assuring that all populations have access to appropriate and cost-effective care, including health promotion and disease prevention services, and evaluation of the effectiveness of that care.  For detailed information on public-health professions and schools offering graduate degrees in public health, see the website of the Association of Schools and Programs of Public Health (ASPH): http://www.aspph.org. A centralized application service is available at http://sophas.org.

Veterinary Medicine

Veterinarians treat and prevent animal disease.  Because of the great diversity of species treated, there is great variety in the work of veterinarians.  Most veterinarians work in private practice, either on their own or as partners in a group practice.  Many private practices specialize in the treatment of small animals, primarily dogs and cats.  Increasingly such practices also treat birds and a variety of exotic animals.  Mixed animal practices may also work with a variety of farm animals, as well as some nondomestic animals.  A minority of veterinary practices specialize in large animals, usually with an emphasis on horses and cattle.  There are many opportunities for veterinary work in areas other than private practice.  For example, in private industry veterinarians may conduct research on nutrition or drug effects for pharmaceutical companies or safeguard the health of laboratory animal colonies.  Veterinarians also work for zoos and aquariums, and may act as consultants to wildlife preservation groups.  A variety of government agencies employ veterinarians in the areas of meat inspection, animal quarantine, and the care of wildlife in our parks.  Academic institutions in the biomedical fields employ veterinarians as clinicians, researchers, and teachers.

Licensing to practice general veterinary medicine requires graduation with a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) degree from an accredited college of veterinary medicine.  Licensing requires satisfactory performance on the national board examination, as well as other requirements controlled by the states.  After graduation, many veterinarians choose to specialize, either in a clinical specialty or in work with a particular species.  Specialization involves a one-year internship followed by two or three years of residency training.

Students interested in a veterinary career should obtain experience working in a veterinary practice, as such experience is required for admission to most or all veterinary schools. Course requirements vary with the institution, but always include a solid basis of chemistry (both inorganic and organic), physics, and biology.  Generally, courses in biochemistry, genetics, microbiology, and nutrition are also specified.  Biology majors interested in veterinary medicine should take our upper-level Vertebrate Structure Laboratory (Biol 3110) and Endocrinology (Biol 3151).

Additional information can be obtained from the Association of American Veterinary Medical Colleges, 1101 Vermont Avenue NW, Suite 710, Washington DC 20005-3521 (phone 202-371-9195; http://aavmc.org), or the American Veterinary Medical Association, 1931 North Meacham Road, Suite 100, Schaumburg, IL 60173-4360 (phone: 1-800-248-AVMA; http://www.avma.org).  Excellent books entitled "Veterinary Medical school Admission Requirements in the United States and Canada" and "The Preveterinary Planning Guide" are available from the Betz Publishing Co., P.O. Box 1745, Rockville MD 20849-9947 (phone: 1-800-634-4365)

OPPORTUNITIES IN BIOTECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS

The societal impact of the genetic engineering revolution is only beginning to be felt in the marketplace, and most molecular biologists agree that the biotechnology industry is only in its infancy. Because of the need for substantial investment of venture capital for research and development of new products, and the long time and additional capital required to bring a product to market, many new companies have struggled and remained small. Many also have folded or have been acquired by larger companies. However, as more products are approved by federal regulatory agencies and begin to yield profits for the companies involved, it is likely that this industry will mature and expand significantly to provide excellent opportunities for students with training in the biological sciences and chemistry. Industries that are especially large and active developers of biotechnology include the pharmaceutical industry, food and natural products processing industries and agricultural (plant and animal) industries.

Agriculture

According to a USDA National Report, the shrinking supply of graduates is the most critical force that will affect the agricultural human resource market. Current enrollment in higher education programs that produce graduates with expertise in food, agriculture, and natural-resource disciplines suggests further erosion of the number of graduates who will become available in the near future. Thus, a market demand for graduates specialized in agricultural sciences appears to be on the rise. Areas that will have a shortage in qualified graduates include forestry, horticulture/ornamental horticulture, agronomy/soils, animal sciences, and food science/food industry. A successful career in agriculture is dependent on a solid training in biology. In addition to the basic requirements in the Biology Major, courses in plant biology (for example, Biol 3041, 3262, 4023, 4028) should be taken. For students interested in animal science, additional courses in animal physiology and development are desirable (for example, Biol 3110, 328, 4580). See Peterson's Guide for graduate programs in agriculture. Information on employment opportunities in agriculture is available from USDA, Washington, D.C. 20250 (http://www.ams.usda.gov/human).

Biotechnology

Students with B.S. (or A.B.) and M.S. degrees can find numerous positions in which they do hands-on work at the lab bench. Such work may involve research and development, production or quality-control testing. Students interested in helping to formulate company policy, helping to choose company research directions or running a research project involving multiple scientists are likely to need a Ph.D. Some companies will subsidize (or pay for entirely) additional education for employees with B.S. degrees who wish to obtain an M.S. (or M.A.) degree at a nearby university. Students interested in biotechnology should develop a strong background in areas including genetics, molecular genetics, cell biology, biochemistry, and microbiology. These fields are mostly represented within Area 1/A of the advanced courses for the Biology major. However, two other courses that are particularly relevant are the Laboratory of DNA Manipulation (Biol 437) and Plant Biology and Genetic Engineering (Biol 3041). In addition, interested students should gain as much real-life laboratory experience as possible, earning Biol 200 and Biol 500 credits while pursuing an independent research project in a lab that uses the techniques of molecular biology. There are approximately 300 laboratories on the Hilltop and Medical School campuses that together form the Departments of the Division of Biology and Biomedical Sciences. The vast majority of these labs utilize the general tools of molecular biology while applying these tools to investigate a variety of biological processes and phenomena. It must be emphasized that with the tools of molecular biology (DNA, RNA and protein purification and analyses, DNA cloning, DNA sequencing, etc.) one can study a variety of problems in virtually any organism. Therefore, it is not as important to work on any single research problem as it is to gain basic training in the tools of the trade. Molecular Biology is both a science and a craft for which one must develop "good hands" at the research bench. As in any trade that requires skill and creativity, one develops "good hands" only through experience and practice. The biotechnology industry and graduate and medical schools preferentially accept students who develop these skills, can work independently with minimal supervision, and can obtain strong letters of recommendation from their research mentors. The campus Career Center, Career Information Days, advertisements in the back of journals such as Science, Nature, Cell, and local newspaper want ads are all good sources for current openings. In addition to the library and journals such as "Biotechnology," there are also sites on the internet that allow users to browse biotechnology information resources. Online job listings and career information are available at: http://www.faseb.org/MARC-and-Professional-Development/Career-Resources.aspx http://www.jobs.nih.gov http://www.lilly.com/careers http://www.bms.com/careers/Pages/home.aspx http://www.gene.com/gene/careers.

Business-Finance and Marketing

Supporting the scientific research endeavor is another industry in which students with a good background in biology and business can excel. The biotechnology industry needs people who combine management skills with knowledge of the biological basis of their industry. This industry supplies equipment, supplies, and reagents to labs within the universities, hospitals, companies and government agencies in which scientific research is conducted. Many salespeople in this industry must meet one-on-one with laboratory managers to sell their products, and first-hand knowledge of the uses of, and scientific bases for, the products they sell is a strong advantage in this competitive area. Biology students may want to consider a minor in business or economics to position themselves to excel in this industry, either in sales or management. Biology majors specifically interested in finance or marketing may complete a second major in one of these areas by taking a minimum of 24 credit hours of courses through the Olin School of Business. General requirements for a second major in either finance or marketing include MGT 100 (The Managerial Environment), MECO 290 (Microeconomics; or substitute Econ 103B plus Econ 401), QBA 120 (Managerial Statistics I, or substitute Math 2200 or 3200, Psych 406, SSM 325 or SSM 326), QBA 121 (Managerial Statistics II, or substitute Econ 413, Math 439 or Psych 407), ACCT 2610 (Principles of Financial Accounting) and ACCT 2620 (Principles of Managerial Accounting). Additional requirements for the Finance second major include FIN 340 (Capital Markets and Financial Management), FIN 442 (Options Pricing), either FIN 447 (Information Flow in Financial Markets) or FIN 448 (Advanced Financial Management), and at least two other advanced finance electives. Additional requirements for the Marketing second major include: (1) MKT 370 (Principles of Marketing), (2) MKT 480 (Marketing Strategy - Spring semester of senior year), and (3) at least three of the following, with at least one course from group A. Group A: MKT 377 (Consumer Behavior), MKT 470E (Pricing), MKT 473 (Marketing Research); Group B: MKT 373 (Retail Management), MKT 470 (Advertising Management), MKT 476 (Advanced Retail Management), MKT 477 (International Marketing). For advising on the business curriculum, contact the Olin School of Business (http://www.olin.wustl.edu).

Computational Biology

With the sequencing of the human genome and development of high-throughput strategies to collect information on a genomic scale, we have a growing need to design new computational strategies for processing and analyzing biological data, particularly DNA and protein sequences. The application of information science to such problems is often called 'bioinformatics.' Other areas, such as biochemistry, cell physiology, evolutionary biology, and neurobiology, increasingly need to use mathematical approaches and computer modeling. Such an approach is often termed "computational biology." Training in computational biology ideally should include a major in biology with course work selected from the appropriate areas of interest, and training in mathematics and computer science. Recommended courses in computer science include CSE 131 (Computer Science I), CSE 201 (Formal Foundations of Computer Science), and CSE 241 (Algorithms and Data Structures). Recommended courses in mathematics include Math 2200 or 3200 (Elementary Probability and Statistics); Math 233 (Calculus III, required if you wish to take Physical Chemistry), Math 217 (Differential Equations), and Math 309 (Matrix Algebra). A student interested in bioinformatics would select biology courses from among biochemistry (Biol 451 or 4810), molecular biology (Biol 3371), molecular evolution (Biol 4183), and experimental methods (Biol 3491, Biol 3492, Biol 4342/434W, Biol 437, Biol 4520, Biol 4522). Computational biology is important also in the study of physiology of biological systems, including the nervous system, as covered in Biol 3151, Biol 328, Biol 3411, Biol 4030, and Biol 404. Because computational biology is a newly developing field, independent research (Biol 500) in bioinformatics is strongly recommended for anyone entering this specialty.

The following sample program provides a biology major with strong training in computational biology (Biology major, bioinformatics orientation):

Environmental Engineering

Environmental engineers take the skills and tools of engineers and apply them to environmental problem solving. Traditionally, environmental engineers have been involved in issues of water and air quality, although recent years have seen new areas emerge, such as bioremediation. Students at Washington University have a number of opportunities if they wish to become environmental engineers. One set of options, of course, is to pursue a background in engineering in the School of Engineering. There, a student can participate in an Environmental Resources program, the Environmental Engineering Science minor, or the Environmental Engineering Science option for a B.S. in Biological and Engineering Science. In addition, within the School of Arts & Sciences, the Environmental Studies major provides students with a good background. Students who major in biology can do quite well in environmental engineering; bioremediation requires extensive knowledge of biology as well as engineering.

The most important skill that a student majoring in biology can gain in preparation for a career in environmental engineering is a ready facility with mathematics. Students should consider taking Math 217 (Differential Equations) and perhaps also Math 233 (Calculus III) and/or Math 2200 or 3200 (Elementary Probability and Statistics). Other courses students might consider include Chem. Eng. 142 (Introduction to Chemical Engineering), where the important concepts of mass and energy balance are covered, Chem. Eng. 320 (Thermodynamics, also offered as Mech. Eng. 320), and Earth and Planetary Sciences 323 (Biogeochemistry). Within the biology major, students would want to be sure to take Microbiology (Biol 349) and Ecology (Biol 381, Biol 4170 or Biol 419).

See http://mase.wustl.edu/Academics/minorinenvironmentalengineeringscience.asp for further information. In addition, students may contact the Air and Waste Management Association, either at its St. Louis Section (currently c/o David Shanks, Boeing Aircraft Co., Mail Code 1111099, P.O. Box 516, St. Louis, MO 63166) or its national headquarters (1 Gateway Center, 3rd Floor, Pittsburgh, PA, 15222; phone: 412-232-3444; http://www.awma.org).

A related career that can combine engineering, math, and biology is Industrial Hygiene, a field involving recognition, evaluation and control of environmental factors in the workplace. For information, write to the American Industrial Hygiene Association, 2700 Prosperity Avenue, Suite 250, Fairfax, VA 22031; phone 703-849-8888; http://www.aiha.org.

Pharmaceutical Industry

The pharmaceutical industry is diverse, with opportunities in small biotech start-up companies as well as in the large well-established multi-national firms. The industry is focused on the development of diagnostics for the rapid accurate identification of individuals with various disease states caused by infectious disease agents, hereditary diseases or acquired progressive disease states, with the development of therapeutic regimens to treat these diseases and with the development of means to prevent disease, often by immunization regimens. The pharmaceutical industry is also involved in the design, development and evaluation of prosthetic devices. In the area of development of diagnostic reagents and processes, the disciplines of microbiology, infectious disease research, immunology and molecular biology are particularly useful. In terms of drug discovery, a background in organic and physical chemistry and computer science, especially with regard to drug receptor interaction modeling, is useful. Of course, if the drugs are biologics produced by microorganisms or plants, an expertise in microbiology and plant natural products becomes important. Much modern drug development requires gene cloning and expertise in molecular biology and genetics. Ultimately, because all drugs must be fully evaluated for teratologic and toxic activities in animals, animal-science training also becomes important. In the development of vaccines and immunization protocols, individuals require expertise in microbiology and infectious disease research, as well as in immunology, molecular biology, and molecular genetics. In the manufacture of vaccines one gets into chemical engineering, fermentation, and bioprocess technologies that rely heavily on engineering as well as industrial microbiology. The development of prosthetic devices relies heavily on knowledge of human anatomy and physiology, and requires considerable engineering skills. In evaluation of all products developed in the pharmaceutical industry, out of necessity one must conduct clinical studies and these studies involve appropriate veterinary and/or medical training, as well as familiarity with experimental design, statistical analysis, toxicology, etc. Attending to regulatory issues with governmental regulatory agencies requires more of a business background as does marketing. These activities all require additional background and skills, but can be based on biology and biomedical science disciplines. Several schools offer Pharm.D. degrees, but be aware that some programs specifically require a B.S. in pharmacy for admission to the Pharm.D. program. Information on schools of pharmacy can be obtained from the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, 1426 Prince Street, Alexandria, VA 22314-2841 (phone: 703-739-2330; http://www.aacp.org).

WORK AND GRADUATE STUDY IN BIOLOGY AND PUBLIC POLICY, LAW, OR SCIENCE COMMUNICATIONS

Science and public policy is an area much in demand today in both the public and private sectors.  People who work in this area advise governmental agencies such as the Department of Energy (DOE), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) or the Congressional Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) on issues relating to environmental law, environmental impact, alternative energy sources, feasibility of various technology programs from the space shuttle to funding for linear accelerators.  Policy experts are also employed by private corporations to research environmental regulations, to provide information to Congress on legislation that affects the introduction or regulation of new technology of interest to a company, etc.  With the recent expansion of the biotechnology business, many aspects of newly engineered plants or animals require knowledge of public policy issues.

Students interested in pursuing careers in science and public policy can either enter the field directly after receiving a B.A., or enroll in graduate work for an M.A. or Ph.D. degree.  Entering the job market directly after college provides practical experience as well as the opportunity to decide whether the field is attractive as a career choice.  Opportunities for such work can be obtained not only with the larger government agencies mentioned above, but also with state environmental agencies, fish and wildlife services, and, of course, private companies.  Long-range career advancement may be limited, however, without an advanced degree.  M.A. and Ph.D. programs prepare students for managerial positions, as well as for teaching in the general area of science, technology and society at the university level.  The following schools, and programs, offer advanced degrees in the field:  Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts (Program in Science, Technology and Society); Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York (Science and Technology Studies), Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia (School of History, Technology and Society), and Cornell University, New York (Program on Science, Technology and Society).  Washington University also offers both a major and minor leading to the B.A. in Engineering and Public Policy through the School of Engineering.

Biology courses that would prepare students for either direct entry into the job market or further graduate work in science and public policy might include: Biol 3041 (Plant Biology and Genetic Engineering), Biol 349 (Microbiology), Biol 381 (Intro. to Ecology), Biol 3491 (Microbiology Laboratory), Biol 437 (DNA Manipulation), Biol 4520 (Protein Function in Model Cellular Systems), Biol 4522 (Laboratory in Protein Biochemistry). Preparation in statistics is also highly recommended, as well as general preparation in economics and political science. Students wanting more information on graduate programs and opportunities in the area of Science and Public Policy should consult the Science and Policy Programs page of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (http://www.aaas.org/spp).

There is growing interest in science majors who want to pursue a law degree, particularly to work in areas of patent law, environmental law, and health-related issues.  Students interested in this area should consult http://www.artsci.wustl.edu/~college/Preprofessional_Programs/Law

Appropriate course selection in biology would depend on the area of interest.  Anyone interested in environmental issues should take Biol 3501 (Evolution) and Biol 381 (Introduction to Ecology), as well as other courses from the Environmental Sciences.  A student interested in patent law might consider preparation in Microbiology (Biol 349), Plant Cells and Proteins Laboratory (Biol 4024), the Lab in DNA Manipulation (Biol 437) and Biochemistry (Biol 451 or 4810).  Anyone with an interest in forensics would want to take Biol 3110 (Vertebrate Structure Laboratory), Biol 4580 (Principles of Human Anatomy and Development), Biol 4183 (Molecular Evolution) and Biol 437 (Lab on DNA Manipulation).

Science majors usually have well-developed analytical thinking skills.  Law-school admission committees also look for evidence of very well-developed writing skills.  Washington University offers advanced courses in composition (e.g. EComp. 211), advanced exposition (EComp. 311) and argumentation (EComp. 312).  Good research and writing skills can be developed further by taking courses in history, philosophy, literature or political science.

Washington University graduates who have attended law school consistently cite the need for strong writing skills.  These law students also indicate that basic undergraduate courses in economics, American history, political science/government, and political theory helped them feel prepared for legal study.  Many also recommend a basic course in financial accounting.

The Pre-Law Advising Office in 205 South Brookings has a wealth of resources to help individuals determine whether law is a good career option.  The office also offers a letter-of-recommendation service, advice about the LSAT, and other services to assist students with the law-school application process.  Members of the Law School Admissions Office also are available to consult with students; call 5-4536 to arrange a class visit or tour of the law school.

National Association of Science Writers (NASW); P.O. Box 294, Greenlawn, NY 11740; (516)757-5664; e-mail: sciwriters@aol.com (Howard J. Lewis, newsletter editor) http://www.nasw.org
Society of Environmental Journalists (SEJ); 9425 Stenton Ave., Suite 209, Philadelphia, PA 19118; (215) 247-9710 (Beth Parke, Executive Director); e-mail: sejoffice@aol.com; http://www.sej.org
Journalism and Communications Academic site: http://www.jou.ufl.edu/default.asp

Scientific/Medical Illustration

While the use of computers is rapidly changing this field, there remains a small group of people that work at the interface of art and science.  It is possible to become a Certified Medical Illustrator; generally this profession requires completion of a Master's degree program such as the Master of Arts in Medical and Biological Illustration offered by Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine (Baltimore).  Programs are available also at the Medical College of Georgia (Augusta), the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor), The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, and the University of Chicago.  Each school accepts 5-10 students a year.  The University of Toronto offers a three-year Bachelor of Science degree in Biomedical Communications.

Students entering these programs most often have majored in Graphic Communications (illustration, graphic design, or advertising) with a minor in biology but can also major in biology with a minor in art.  Required prerequisite courses vary, but generally include introductory biology (here Biol 2960, 2970; Chem 111A, 112A, 251) vertebrate structure (Biol 3110; see also Biol 4580), physiology (Biol 328); drawing, basic painting (including watercolor), advanced life drawing (figure drawing), a graphic design course, basic photography, and computer graphics.  Detailed information can be obtained from the institutions given above, or one might contact the Association of Medical Illustrators, 1819 Peachtree Street, N.E., Atlanta, GA 30309; also see information at the following web site: http://www.ami.org.

Any science used for the purposes of the law is a forensic science. Forensic science is a rewarding career where the love of science can be applied to the good of society, public health, and public safety. A forensic scientist provides information and expert opinion to investigators, attorneys, judges, and juries in determining the innocence or guilt of a defendant. Forensic scientists work in laboratories, at crime scenes, in offices, and in morgues. They may work for federal, state and local government, forensic laboratories, medical examiners offices, hospitals, universities, toxicology laboratories, police departments, medical examiner/coroner offices, or as independent forensic science consultants.

Forensic scientists must have a bachelor's degree in science and some forensic sciences require advanced degrees; take biology, chemistry, math, and English composition.

The American Academy of Forensic Science, the largest forensic science organization in the world, comprises over 5,000 scientists organized into ten sections representing the different areas of expertise of individual members. Biology-related sections include Odontology, Pathology/Biology, Physical Anthropology, Psychiatry & Behavioral Science, and Toxicology. Forensic dentistry (odontology) applies dental science to the identification of unknown human remains and bite marks, using both physical and biological dental evidence. Identification of the human remains of natural disasters, terrorist activities, and missing and unknown persons is a central activity. Forensic pathology is the application of the principles of pathology (a medical specialty in the study of disease) to needs of the legal system. Forensic pathologists perform autopsies to determine what caused a person's death. They also investigate circumstances surrounding the death to infer the manner of death — natural, accident, suicide, homicide, or undetermined.

Forensic anthropologists identify individuals killed in disasters such as plane crashes, explosions, fires, and other tragedies resulting in the loss of life and mutilation of bodies. Forensic psychologists and psychiatrists address a broad range of legal issues as they work with criminal and civil cases and other areas such as family and domestic-relations law. In criminal law, such issues as competence (e.g., competency to stand trial and to testify, to waive legal representation, or to be executed), and the assessment of mental illness as it relates to diminished responsibility or innocence by reason of mental illness or defect are the focus. Civil law requires assessment of such issues as involuntary psychiatric hospitalization, right to refuse treatment, competency to participate in do-not resuscitate decisions, and disability compensation among others. Issues in family and domestic relations may include juvenile delinquency, child custody, parental fitness, domestic abuse, adoption, and foster care. 

GRADUATE SCHOOL IN BIOLOGY